As of version 3. For example, you should provide header. For more on how these various Templates work and how to generate different information within them, read the Templates documentation. The files defining each page template are found in your Themes directory. To create a new custom page template for a page you must create a file. Let's call our first page template for our page snarfer.
At the top of the snarfer. The above code defines this snarfer. Naturally, "Snarfer" may be replaced with most any text to change the name of the page template. This template name will appear in the Theme Editor as the link to edit this file. The file may be named almost anything with a.
What follows the above five lines of code is up to you. The rest of the code you write will control how pages that use the Snarfer page template will display. See Template Tags for a description of the various WordPress template functions you can use for this purpose. You may find it more convenient to copy some other template perhaps page. Examples are shown below.
Once you have created a page template and placed it in your theme's directory, it will be available as a choice when you create or edit a page. Note : when creating or editing a page, the Page Template option does not appear unless there is at least one template defined in the above manner. WordPress can load different Templates for different query types. There are two ways to do this: as part of the built-in Template Hierarchy , and through the use of Conditional Tags within The Loop of a template file.
To use the Template Hierarchy , you basically need to provide special-purpose Template files, which will automatically be used to override index. For instance, if your Theme provides a template called category.
If category. You can get even more specific in the Template Hierarchy by providing a file called, for instance, category In WordPress 2. It will look ' For a more detailed look at how this process works, see Category Templates.
If your Theme needs to have even more control over which Template files are used than what is provided in the Template Hierarchy , you can use Conditional Tags. The Conditional Tag basically checks to see if some particular condition is true, within the WordPress Loop , and then you can load a particular template, or put some particular text on the screen, based on that condition. For example, to generate a distinctive stylesheet in a post only found within a specific category, the code might look like this:.
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This can be reviewed periodically — both on the monitor screen and on hard copy — as coding progresses to assess its current contents and possible evolution. Maintaining this list provides an analytic opportunity to organize and reorga- nize the codes into major categories and subcategories. This management tech- nique also provides a comparative list if you are working with multiple participants and sites. MacQueen et al. Also note that a codebook differs from an index, the latter being a coded composite of the data corpus, organized alphabetically, hierarchically, chronologically, categorically, etc.
Once a statistical test has been adminis- tered this way, they can then use computers with software specifically designed to calculate numeric data. Coding and qualitative data analysis have their equivalent trial. The reason is that each class assignment of data gathering is relatively small-scale and thus a manageable project to analyze in this manner. Coding manually Trying to learn the basics of coding and qualitative data analysis simultane- ously with the sometimes complex instructions and multiple functions of CAQDAS programs can be overwhelming for some, if not most.
Your mental energies may be more focused on the software than the data. I recommend that for first-time or small-scale studies, code on hard-copy printouts first, not via a computer monitor cf. Bazeley, , p. There is something about manipulating qualitative data on paper and writing codes in pencil that give you more control over and ownership of the work.
After you feel the codes are fairly well set from your initial hard-copy work, then transfer your codes onto the electronic file. Even proponents of CAQDAS recommend that hard-copy printouts of code lists and coded data be generated occasionally to permit you to work with tra- ditional writing materials such as red pens and highlighters to explore data in fresh ways.
Coding electronically After you have gained some experience with hard-copy coding and have developed a basic understanding of the fundamentals of qualitative data analy- sis, apply that experiential knowledge base by working with CAQDAS. Keep in mind that CAQDAS itself does not actually code the data for you; that task is still the responsibility of the researcher. The software efficiently stores, orga- nizes, manages, and reconfigures your data to enable human analytic reflection.
As with all word-processed work on a computer, backup your original files as a precautionary measure. This becomes vital for its coding and retrieval functions to work consistently and reliably.
Figure 1. Patents pending. Passages have to be formatted in prescribed ways and contain the exact same word or phrase, however, for this function to work accurately. Searches or queries of coded passages can even find where particular codes co-occur, over- lap, appear in a sequence, or lie in proximity to each other. The varying sizes of the squares within the matrix indicate the relative frequency of such matches.
CAQDAS also permits the researcher to shift quickly back and forth between multiple analytic tasks, such as coding, analytic memo writing, and exploring pat- terns in progress. Since most readers of this book are more than likely newcomers to qualitative data analysis, I assume that manual coding will be the first method you employ. Thus, I pre- sent the coding profiles with that assumption in mind. Provocative questions are posed for consideration that could possibly generate new and richer codes Olesen et al.
Ultimately, team members must coordinate and insure that their sometimes indi- vidual coding efforts harmonize, particularly if a central data base and CAQDAS system are employed.
For these types of collaborative ventures, intercoder agreement or interpretive con- vergence — the percentage at which different coders agree and remain consistent with their assignment of particular codes to particular data — is an important part of the process see Bernard, , pp.
Discussion provides not only an opportunity to articulate your internal thinking processes, but also presents windows of opportunity for clarifying your emergent ideas and possibly mak- ing new insights about the data. Ezzy , pp. Though applicable for team researchers as well, the lone researcher can benefit most from these recommen- dations to assess the trustworthiness of her account: 1 check your interpreta- tions developed thus far with the participants themselves; 2 initially code as you transcribe interview data; and 3 maintain a reflective journal on the research project with copious analytic memos.
Necessary Personal Attributes for Coding Aside from such cognitive skills as induction, deduction, abduction, synthesis, evaluation, and logical and critical thinking, there are seven personal attributes all qualitative researchers should possess, particularly for coding processes. First, you need to be organized. Organization is a set of disciplined skills that can be learned and cul- tivated as habits.
The multiple codes you generate will need an organized framework for qualitative analysis. And despite the electronic filing systems of hard drives and CAQDAS, you will still encounter and manipulate many pages of paper in qualitative work.
Date and label all incoming data and keep multiple digital and hard copies as backup. Virtually every writer of qualitative research methods literature remarks that coding data is challenging and time- consuming. Some writers also declare how tedious and frustrating it can be. Take breaks from your work when you need to, of course — this will keep you refreshed and alert. But cultivate a personal work ethic and create an environ- ment and schedule that enable you to sustain extended periods of time with analytic tasks requiring your full concentration.
Third, you need to be able to deal with ambiguity. The acts of coding and cod- ifying are not precise sciences with specific algorithms or procedures to follow. Yes, occasionally answers may suddenly and serendipitously crystallize out of nowhere. But at other times, a piece of the analytic puzzle may be missing for days or weeks or even months.
Rich ideas need time to formulate, so have trust and faith in yourself that these may emerge in due time. But remember that you can accelerate the process through analytic memo writing. Fourth, you will need to exercise flexibility. Coding is a cyclical process that requires you to recode not just once but twice and sometimes even more. Virtually no one gets it right the first time.
If you notice that your initial meth- ods choices may not be working for you or not delivering emergent answers you need, be flexible with your approach and try a modified or different method all together.
Virtually all researcher-developed coding schemes are never fixed from the beginning — they evolve as analysis progresses. Fifth, you need to be creative. Noted ethnographer Michael H. We generally advocate that qualitative researchers remain close to and deeply rooted in their data, but every code and category you construct or select are choices from a wide range of possible options.
Creativity also means the ability to think visu- ally, to think in metaphors, and to think of as many ways possible to approach a problem. Creativity is essential for your data collection, data analysis, and even for your final written report. Sixth, you need to be rigorously ethical. Honesty is perhaps another way to describe this, but I deliberately choose the phrase because it implies that you will always be: rigorously ethical with your participants and treat them with respect; rigorously ethical with your data and not ignore or delete those seem- ingly problematic passages of text; and rigorously ethical with your analysis by maintaining a sense of scholarly integrity and working hard toward the final outcomes.
The seventh and arguably most important skill you need for coding is an extensive vocabulary. In qualitative research, our precision rests with our word choices. A thesaurus review of a key word chosen as a code or category may introduce you to an even better — and more precise — word for your analysis. The majority of readers would most likely find the discussion tedious or irrelevant compared to the more important features, such as the major categories and findings.
Plus, scholarly journals place length restric- tions on article manuscripts, so some components of the research story must be left out and, more often than not, codes and coding fall by the wayside. Stewart, Just acknowledge that the long time and rigor- ous effort you put into, and joyous personal analytic growth you experience through, coding and analytic memo writing are private affairs between you and your data cf.
Constas, That suggests that the methods profiled here are like tested recipes guaranteed to produce successful dishes every time. Each qualitative study is context-specific and your data are unique, as are you and your creative abilities to code them. My own qualita- tive research projects, in fact, have ranged from the realist to the literary and from the confessional to the critical van Maanen, But as a theatre prac- titioner, my discipline acknowledges that we must attend to both the art and craft of what we do to make our stage production work successful.
Hence, I must have an attunement to various methods of classroom practice because my professional responsibilities require that I do. Some methods are organizational, managerial, time-efficient, and related to carefully planned curriculum design. Yet I empha- size to my students that such processes as the creative impulse, trusting your instincts, taking a risk, and just being empathetically human in the classroom are also legitimate methods of teaching practice.
Education is complex; so is social life in general and so is qualitative inquiry in particular. A metacognition of method, even in an emergent, inductive-oriented, and socially conscious enterprise such as qualitative inquiry, is vitally important. This introduction focused on codes and coding. There is an accompany- ing heuristic with this process — writing analytic memos, the subject of the next chapter. Insights emerge also from the subconscious and from bodily memories, never penned on paper.
There are serendipitous connections to be made, if the writer is open to them. Writing and analysis comprise a movement between the tangible and intangible, between the cerebral and sensual, between the visible and invisible.
Interpretation moves from evidence to ideas and theory, then back again. There can be no set formulae, only broad guidelines, sensitive to specific cases. Your private and personal written musings before, during, and about the entire enterprise is a question-raising, puzzle-piecing, connection-making, strategy-building, problem-solving, answer-generating, rising-above-the-data heuristic.
Robert E. What is an Analytic Memo? Think of a code not just as a significant word or phrase you applied to a datum, but as a prompt or trigger for written reflec- tion on the deeper and complex meanings it evokes. Let me clarify that I use analytic memo as my term of choice because, to me, all memos are analytic regardless of content.
Some methodologists recommend that you label, classify, and keep separate different types of memos according to their primary purpose: a coding memo, theoretical memo, research question memo, task memo, etc.
But I have found it difficult in my own work to write freely and analytically within the bounded parameters of an artificial memo category as a framing device. Dating each memo helps keep track of the evolution of your study. Giving each memo a descriptive title and evocative subtitle enables you to classify it and later retrieve it through a CAQ- DAS search. Depending on the depth and breadth of your writing, memos can even be woven as substantive portions into the final written report.
Also important to note here is the difference between analytic memos and field notes. Field notes may contain valuable comments and insights that address the recommended categories for analytic memo reflection described below. Thus, personal field notes are potential sites in which rich analysis may occur. I recommend extracting these memo-like passages from the corpus and keeping them in a separate file devoted exclusively to analytic reflection.
Future direc- tions, unanswered questions, frustrations with the analysis, insightful connections, and anything about the researched and the researcher are acceptable content for memos. So keep a small paper notepad and something to write with, or a hand- held digital audio recorder, nearby at all times for brief jottings or reminders in lieu of computer access. Below is one of the coding examples from Chapter One.
Extensive memo writing, as illustrated below, over just one small passage of coded data, such as that above, is most unlikely. The example is kept deliber- ately brief to show how the same piece of data can be approached from mul- tiple angles for analytic memo writing. In what ways are you similar to them? They just, sigh, put me down all the time, too. School became a place where I dreaded going. Barry probably dreaded it, too. Focusing on your a priori [determined beforehand] articulated research questions, purposes, and goals as analysis progresses will keep you on track with the project.
Start by writing the actual question itself then elaborate on answers in progress. This middle school dead period seemed to have influenced and affected his moody entry into high school, but he overcame it. So now, the task is learning what hap- pened to Barry beginning in ninth grade that changed him for the better. Reflect on and write about your code choices and their operational definitions. Define your codes and rationalize your specific choices for the data.
To be rejected is one of the most devastating acts for a tween and a child and a teenager and an adult. I know I was. Reflect on and write about the emergent patterns, categories, themes, and con- cepts. Remember that individual codes eventually become part of a broader scheme of classification. As I continue analysis, that code may be more conceptual than I think at this point in the study. Reflect on and write about the possible networks links, connections, overlaps, flows among the codes, patterns, categories, themes, and concepts.
One of the most criti- cal outcomes of qualitative data analysis is to interpret how the individual compo- nents of the study weave together. First-draft diagrams of network relationships between and among concepts are also possible as analytic memo content see Appendix C for an extended example.
Networking makes you think of possible hierarchies, chronological flows, and influences and affects i. Transcend the local and particular of your study, and reflect on how your observations may apply to other populations, to the bigger picture, to the generalizable, even to the universal. Explore possible metaphors and symbols at work in your data that suggest transferability. Speculate on how your theory predicts human action and explains why those actions occur. Once lost, we go inward; once lost, we hide.
Positioning theory from the s and s might be relevant here. Reflexive and interactive positioning are the dynamics at work within Barry and among him and his peers. Reflect on and write about any problems with the study. The act is also a way to raise provocative questions for continued reflection, or to vent any personal frustrations you may be feeling about the study.
Reflect on and write about any personal or ethical dilemmas with the study. Ethical issues of varying magnitude arise in virtually every study with human participants. Most of these dilemmas are usually unforeseen, based on what par- ticipants unexpectedly bring to interviews or what the researcher observes in the field that counters her value, attitude, and belief systems.
Reflection keeps you attuned to these matters and may help you brainstorm possible solutions. Maybe asking his mother to talk about those years rather than Barry will get the info to help me plot his life course? Reflect on and write about future directions for the study.
Each qualitative research project is unique and cumulative in nature. The more you interview participants and observe them in natural social settings, the more ideas you generate for possible future research action. As data collection and analysis progress, you may discover missing elements or a need for additional data.
You may even reconceptualize your entire initial approach and find inspiration from a new insight about the phenomenon or process under investigation. But the tween years are elusive to me. Find a site and get back in touch with what happens from sixth through eighth grades. Reflect on and write about the analytic memos generated thus far. Though this may happen on its own accord, the researcher will also have to consciously achieve it.
Perhaps my attempt to systematically cat- egorize these data is proving useful for what could become an evocative narra- tive analysis instead? That can be a good thing, though — a place for inward reflection, deep introspection — before that break- through moment — I hope. Reflect on and write about the final report for the study. Or, you might use analytic memo writing as a way to ponder the organi- zation, structure, and contents of the forthcoming final report.
Barry speaks quite fondly of her and considers her a tremendous nurturer of who he is and who he is becoming. SANDY: Barry went through a really tough time about, probably started the end of fifth grade and went into sixth grade. When he was growing up young in school he was a people-pleaser and his teachers loved him to death. Two boys in particular that he chose to try to emulate were not very good for him. They were very critical of him, they put him down all the time, and he kind of just took that and really kind of internalized it, I think, for a long time.
In that time period, in the fifth grade, early sixth grade, they really just kind of shunned him all together, and so his network as he knew it was gone. From the time he entered Lakewood to the time he left Lakewood, he was a target by the bad guys.
That was a very tough time for him. Your reflections on the topics listed above collectively generate potential material for formulating a set of core ideas for presentation. Substantive analytic memos may also con- tribute to the quality of your analysis by rigorous reflection on the data.
Coding and Categorizing Analytic Memos Analytic memos themselves from the study can be coded and categorized according to their content. The subtitles function as subcodes or themes and enable you to subcategorize the contents into more study-specific groupings — for example, analytic memos about specific participants, specific code groups, spe- cific theories in progress, etc.
By memo writing about your puzzlement and loss for a specific code for a particular datum, the perfect one may emerge. By memo writing about how some codes seem to cluster and interrelate, a category for them may be identified. Codes and categories are found not only in the margins or headings of interview transcripts and field notes — they are also embedded within analytic memos.
Glaser and Anselm L. Grounded theory and its coding canon Briefly, grounded theory, developed in the s, is generally regarded as one of the first methodologically systematic approaches to qualitative inquiry. In Vivo, Process, and Initial Coding are First Cycle methods — coding processes for the beginning stages of data analysis that fracture or split the data into individually coded segments.
Figure 2. Note how ana- lytic memo writing is a linked component of the major stages leading toward the development of theory. I minimize the number of analytic memo examples in the coding profiles that follow because I myself find reading extensive ones in research methods textbooks too case-specific and somewhat fatiguing.
If you wish to see how a trail of analytic memos progresses from First through Second Cycles of coding with the same data excerpt, see the profiles for Initial, Focused,Axial, and Theoretical Coding. Analytic Memos on Visual Data A perceived problem is the coding of visual data such as photographs, print mate- rials magazines, brochures, etc.
Despite some preexisting coding frameworks for visual representation, I feel the best approach to analyz- ing visual data is a holistic, interpretive lens guided by strategic questions.
Any descriptors we use for documenting the images of social life should employ rich, dynamic words. Adele E. What is implicitly and explicitly normalized? He maintains still poses in compositions, does not steal focus. His voice is clear, good volume, articulate, wide variety, range. He is dynamic, has good energy, believable in his dialogue. The others overact, miss the comic timing, speech is sometimes sloppy, difficult to hear.
Barry has a leading man quality about him, a presence. He looks handsome, blonde hair cut close — had it long recently — sturdy build, the physique of a beginning football player. Not everyone has this skill, even university actors. The majority of male Hollywood celebrities are handsome, well-built, and their fan base is drawn to their physical appearance. The beautiful, even in everyday life, also tend to be the popular. In the classroom, I notice girls surrounding Barry before class begins.
Though he is aware of his body, he is not arrogant about it, which perhaps adds even more to his charisma and appeal. The still image of a digital photo permits nuanced visual analysis, but Walsh et al. From my readings of various systematic methods for analyzing visual data, I have yet to find a single satisfactory approach that rivals the tacit capa- bilities of human interpretation and reflection.
Trust your intuitive impressions when analyzing and writing about visual materials. The next chapter begins with an overview of how to use this manual to guide you through its First Cycle coding methods profiles, and how to select the most appropriate one s for your particular qualitative research study. Learn to be content, however, with your early, simple cod- ing schemes, knowing that with use they will become appropriately complex.
The coding methods in this manual are divided into two main sections: First Cycle and Second Cycle coding methods see Figure 3. First Cycle methods are those processes that happen during the initial coding of data and are divided into seven subcategories: Grammatical, Elemental, Affective, Literary and Language, Exploratory, Procedural, and a final profile enti- tled Themeing the Data.
Most First Cycle methods are fairly simple and direct. Second Cycle methods see Chapter Four are a bit more challenging because they require such analytic skills as classifying, prioritizing, integrating, synthesiz- ing, abstracting, conceptualizing, and theory building. If you have taken owner- ship of the data through careful First Cycle coding and recoding , the transition to Second Cycle methods becomes easier.
Thus, memo writing before, during, and after you code becomes a critical analytic heuristic see Chapter Two. Depending on the nature and goals of your study, you may find that one cod- ing method alone will suffice, or that two or more are needed to capture the complex processes or phenomena in your data. Be cautious of muddying the analytic waters, though, by employing too many methods for one study such as ten First Cycle coding methods or integrating incompatible methods such as an Exploratory Method with a Procedural Method.
Let me offer an array of different answers for the various contexts of begin- ning qualitative researchers. Various perspectives on coding decisions Which coding method s is appropriate for your particular study? Some forego coding of data all together to rely on phenomenological interpretations of the themes in and meanings of texts van Manen, Some believe prescribed methods of coding are all together aconceptual, mechanistic, futile, and purposeless Dey, Others, like me, believe in the necessity and payoff of coding for selected qualitative studies, yet wish to keep themselves open during initial data collection and review before determining which coding method s — if any — will be most appropriate and most likely to yield a substantive analysis.
An instruc- tor familiar with the methods profiled in this manual and your particular pro- ject can offer specific recommendations and guidance.
Attribute Coding for all data as a management technique 2. Descriptive Coding for field notes, documents, and artifacts as a detailed inventory of their contents 4. This choice was determined beforehand as part of the critical ethno- graphic research design. Thus, the coding decision was based on the paradigm or theoretical approach to the study. But another project I conducted with teach- ers Hager et al.
Thus, the coding decision was based on an emergent conceptual framework for the study. What eventually emerged as the primary method was Descriptive Coding since I had multiple types of data interview transcripts, field notes, documents, etc. Thus, the coding decision was based on the methodological needs of the study. Coding and a priori goals Which coding method s is appropriate for your particular study?
But if your goal is to develop new theory about a phenomenon or process, then classic or re-envisioned grounded theory and its accompanying coding methods — In Vivo, Process, Initial, Focused, Axial, and Theoretical Coding — are your recommended but not required options.
In the Examples and Analyses portions of these coding profiles, I stay with the same participant and her data to show how one partic- ular case progresses from First through Second Cycle coding methods. An illustration of two cells of a film strip.
Video An illustration of an audio speaker. Books to Borrow. Books for. Theme installation. To install the latest development version of Sage, add dev-master to the end of the command. Search the world's most comprehensive index of full-text books.
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